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	MAGNEGAS FOR AUTOMOTIVE USE TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2. TECHNICAL SUMMARY 3. MAGNEGAS AS NATURAL GAS ADDITIVE 4. MAGNEGAS AS COAL ADDITIVE 5. CERTIFICATION OF MAGNEGAS EXHAUST 6. OXYGEN DEPLETION 7. OZONE DEPLETION 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Magnegas Technology was originally conceived to process crude oil into a fuel less polluting than gasoline at a cost smaller than that of conventional refineries (Scientific background). Following decades of R&D and large investments, these objectives have been industrially achieved with currently available, completely automatic, MagneGas TM Refineries from 50 Kw to 500 Kw that can gasify crude oil into MagneGas fuel. The gasification is based on a new process called PlasmaArcFlowTM (patented and international patents pending) based on the recirculation of the liquid feedstock through a submerged electric arc between graphite electrodes. Following the original development of the technology for crude oil, it was discovered that MagneGas Refineries can also process various liquid wastes, such as engine oil waste, cooking oil waste, paint thinner wastes, liquid wastes from olive oil production, whey from cheese production, and other liquid wastes. In fact, the PlasmaArcFlow process sees no appreciable difference in gasifying crude oil or engine oil waste. It should be noted that liquid waste with major chemical differences may require different Refineries (for details, please visit MagneGas Refineries). A Ford Contour Bi-Fuel gasoline/natural gas, operated on MagneGas, here shown as being tested at the Formula 1 Race Track in Monza, Italy. MagneGas is composed of about 55%-60% hydrogen H2, 22%-25% carbon monoxide CO, the rest is given by O2, CO2 and H2O. Under proper combustion, Magnegas exhaust is composed of about 40% to 50% water vapor, 12% to 14% oxygen, 5% to 7% CO2, and the rest is given by atmospheric gases. MagneGas is much cleaner than fossil fuels because it does not contain appreciable hydrocarbons. In fact, MagneGas is synthesized at about 10,000o F of the plasma surrounding the electric arc, under which conditions no HydroCarbon can survive. Conventional oil refineries achieve profitability only for large, multi-acres plants. By comparison, MagneGas Refineries allow profitability even with a small unit on a trailer. Consequently, a distinct feature of the MagneGas Technology is that of producing fuel where and when desired, thus allowing car dealers, gasoline stations, fleet owners and other users to become producers of their own fuel locally. An important application of MagneGas is its use as additive to clean fossil fuel exhaust. For instance, the addition of MagneGas to coal combustion burns HydroCarbons, Carbon Monoxide and other contaminants in coal exhaust in a way proportionate to the used MagneGas. Similarly, the addition of magnegas to natural gas improves distinctly its environmental quality, all the way to the possible green electricity, again, depending on the used percentage of magnegas. A view of the exhaust of the Ford Contour of the preceding picture when fueled by MagneGas. Note that: the few detected HydroCarbons originate from engine oil seeping through the piston rings; in the event present, the very small percentage of detected CO is due to incomplete combustion; the detected CO2 is 30% to 40% less than the percentage in fossil fuel exhaust; and the reduction of the NOx is due to the lower engine temperature when fueled by Magnegas. MagneGas can be used as automotive fuel with distinct environmental and financial benefits. Several carmakers produce Bi-Fuel cars running on Gasoline or Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) that are suitable to run on Compressed MagneGas )(CMG). This is the case of the Ford Contour depicted above and many others. These Bi-Fuel cars can be operated on Compressed MagneGas (CMG) with minimal adjustments. Bi-Fuel cars are recommendable because the change from one fuel to the other is done with a switch on the dashboard and, when running out of MagneGas, refueling is done by using gasoline. Additionally, the MagneGas Technology provides new means for the production of Hydrogen and Oxygen where and when desired with the addition of a Molecular Separation Station to MagneGas Refineries. Recall that Hydrogen is currently produced via the reformation of fossil fuels such as methane CH4, the electrolytic separation of water H2O or other means requiring substantial energy for the breaking down of molecules into their constituents, thus resulting in considerable production costs. By comparison, hydrogen is contained in MagneGas as a mixture with other gases, thus allowing much easier and less expensive production via established molecular separation equipment. The same applies for the production of Oxygen via molecular separation from MagneGas. A view of two Honda Civic cars operated on Magnegas, the white Honda being stock Bi-Fuel and the brown Honda being converted. 2. TECHNICAL SUMMARY MagneGas is a Hydrogen-Base Gas, because it contains more than 50% Hydrogen in combination with other combustible gases such as Carbon Monoxide. MagneGas is also considered as being a Bio-Gas because produced from biocontaminated liquid wastes, or Syn-Gas referring to a synthesized combination of H2 and CO. The combustion exhaust of MagneGas has been the subject of extensive and expensive studies and certifications reported below, Summary view of the measurements of MagneGas, Natural Gas, and Gasoline exhaust by the EPA certified automotive laboratory Liphardt & Associates of Long Island, New York, conducted in November 2000. Element (MG) Natural Gas Gasoline EPA Standards Hydro-carbons 0.026 gm/mi 0.380 gm/mi 2460% of MG emission 0.234 gm/mi 900% of MG emission 0.41 gm/mi Carbon Monoxide 0.262 gm/mi 5.494 gm/mi 2096% of MG emission 1.965 gm/mi 750% of MG emission 3.40 gm/mi Nitrogen Oxides 0.281 gm/mi 0.732 gm/mi 260% of MG emission 0.247 gm/mi 80% of MG emission 1.00 gm/mi Carbon Dioxide 235 gm/mi 646.503 gm/mi 275% of MG emission 458.655 gm/mi 195% of MG emission No EPA standard exists for Carbon Dioxide Oxygen 9%-12% 0.5%-0.7% 0.04% of MG emission 0.5%-0.7% 0.04% of MG emission No EPA standard exists for Oxygen Note that NOx are due to the engine temperature and are independent from the used fuel. As indicated in the Certification below, the Honda Civic was dedicated to Natural Gas and Magnegas. Consequently, the test on gasoline was done on a different car. Therefore, the true comparison for NOX is that between Natural Gas 0.732 gm/mi and MagneGas 0.281 gm/mi. This significant decrease in NOX is due to the fact that MagneGas combustion temperature is 30% to 40% smaller than that of fossil fuels due to its 50% water content. ENERGY CONTENT OF MAGNEGAS. When produced with MagneGas Refineries processing oil-base liquid waste, Magnegas generally contains about 900 BTU/scf (about 32 BTU/Liter), namely, about 90% of the energy content of Natural Gas. When produced from water-base liquid wastes, the Hydrogen content of MagneGas generally increases but its energy content decreases. GASOLINE GALLON (LITER) EQUIVALENT. One gallon of gasoline contains approximately 110,000 BTU (one liter of gasoline contains approximately 30,000 BTU). Consequently, the Gasoline Gallon Equivalent (GGE) of MagneGas is given by 110,000/900 = 122 scf, namely,,it takes 122 scf of MagneGas as automotive fuel to have the same performance of one gallon of gasoline (The Gasoline Liter Equivalent (GLE) of magneGas is given by 30,000/32 = 937 Liters, namely, 937 liters of MagneGas have the same performance in a car of one liter of gasoline). A view of a Magnegas Filling Station comprising a compressor, and high pressure bottles. The car is refilled very rapidly and safely from the high pressure bottles without danger of spillage. The primary advantages in the use of magneGas as automotive fuel are the following: 1. ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANTAGE: MagneGas exhaust surpasses EPA requirements without catalytic converter, as shown by the Certification of MagneGas exhaust, because MagneGas is produced at 10,000o F of the plasma surrounding the electric arc and, as such, cannot contain HydroCarbons (HC). The HC detected in MagneGas exhaust are generally due to engine oil seeping through piston rings. Carbon MonOxide (CO) is a byproduct of fossil fuel combustion, while CO is part of MagneGas fuel. Therefore, any presence of appreciable CO in MagneGas exhaust is evidence of incomplete combustion, like detecting gasoline in the exhaust of a gasoline fueled car with incomplete combustion. Unlike fossil fuel which require atmospheric oxygen to burn, thus causing one of the biggest environmental problems known as oxygen depletion, MagneGas is internally rich in oxygen, thus alleviating the alarming depletion of breathable oxygen in our atmosphere caused by fossil fuel combustion to date. Finally, MagneGas combustion allows a reduction of green house gases in the exhaust as documented in the certification below. 2. LOGISTIC ADVANTAGES. Unlike other fuels, MagneGas can be produced locally where and when desired, with various Refineries fitting disparate needs. This reduces significantly the logistics in shipping and storing fuel and related costs. 3. MagneGas is cost competitive with respect to other fossil fuels when produced via MagneGas Refineries operating in the Total Mode while recycling an income producing liquid waste, under the utilization of the produced heat, or the use of renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar power. A view of an SUV Chevrolet Suburban converted to Bi-Fuel operation Gasoline/MagneGas while pulling a 50 Kw MagneGas refinery. 3. MAGNEGAS AS NATURAL GAS ADDITIVE MagneGas can be used as an additive to clean fossil fuel exhaust. A trend of the 20th century was that of burning fuels and then cleaning their exhaust. Currently, the objective is to decrease the contaminants in the exhaust by increasing the combustion due to evident advantages, such as bigger energy output from the same fuel, bigger efficiency, smaller costs in scrubbing, etc. Most of the contaminants in fossil fuel exhaust are combustible, such as HydroCarbon, Carbon Monoxide and others. As well known, Hydrogen has one of the bigger flame temperature and speed among all fuels. Therefore, when injected in the flame of fossil fuels, Hydrogen causes the burning of the combustible contaminants in a way proportional to the used percentage. Hydrogen is not generally used as an additive to clean fossil fuel exhaust due to its cost. The industrial importance of MagneGas is the capability of providing a Hydrogen rich fuel at a competitive price, thus allowing its use as additive to clean fossil fuel exhaust. The residual components of MagneGas are also excellent on environmental grounds, because they are oxygen rich.< br> As an example, by using the comparison data of the table in the Technical Summary, the use of a mixture 50% - 50% of Natural Gas and MagneGas has an exhaust with the following reduction of contaminants in Natural Gas exhaust and increase of oxygen content: HydroCarbons 0.207 gm/li corresponding to a 53% reduction; Carbon Monoxide 2.979 mg/li corresponding to a 52% reduction; Nitrogen Oxide 0.506 gm/li corresponding to a 25% reduction; Carbon Dioxide 440..75 mg/li corresponding to 68% reduction; Oxygen 4.50 % corresponding to a 90% increase. As one can see, the above mixture 50% - 50% of Natural Gas and MagneGas is indeed environmentally important and definitely recommendable for actual use as compared to sole use of Natural Gas. The same holds for other percentages in the use of MagneGas as additive to Natural Gas. An additional advantage is that Bi-Fuel cars need no adjustment when operating on a mixture of Natural Gas and MagneGas. There are additional advantages of technical character discussed in the Scientific background. A view of a Ferrari 308 GTSi 1981 converted in 2000 to operated on MagneGas while being tested at the Moroso International Race Track in Florida, and a view (bottom) of its clean exhaust. Since the temperature of the MagneGas exhaust is about 30% less than that for gasoline, thus allowing the release of more fuel in the same engine at the gasoline operating temperature, the conversion was done to prove that this Ferrari would accelerate on MagneGas faster than the same car operated on gasoline. 4. MAGNEGAS AS COAL ADDITIVE Hydrogen is the fuel with the biggest flame temperature and speed among all fuels. Consequently, the injection of hydrogen into the flame of fossil fuels (carbon, petroleum, propane, etc.) burns the uncombusted components of the exhaust in a way proportional to the used percentage. MagneGas contains at least 65% hydrogen in a mixture (rather than via a valence bond) with oxygen and other gaseous fuels. Most coal power plants pollute the environment because up to 60% of the coal burned remains un-combusted and has to be cleaned through various processes prior to being released. Preliminary testing and analysis of using Magnegas to clean coal exhaust has been very promising and is under development.   Coal Furnace without Injection of Magnegas Coal Furnace with the Injection of Magnegas SYNERGIES OF MAGNEGAS WITH WINDPOWER Preliminary analysis has shown that the power generated from Wind Turbines has the ability to create a fuel through the Plasma Arc Flow refinery. Magnegas Corporation is currently seeking to form partnerships with existing Wind power companies to further explore the synergies of the two processes. Wind power creates a constantly varying power source obtained from the use of wind. The Magnegas Refineries operate in a fully automatic mode with a largely variable DC power input, from a minimum threshold for the maintenance of the arc to the limit of the equipment. Hence, Magnegas Recyclers Refineries are ideally suited to turn existing equipment for wind power into fuel producers. In turn, the produced fuel is suitable for a variety of uses, including automotive, metal cutting, electric generation, cooking a heating. The fuel can be stored and transported as needed for future use. Although this concept has not been put into production, analysis shows that the potential synergies are very large and are currently under exploration. 5. CERTIFICATION OF MAGNEGAS EXHAUST Formal MagneGas exhaust measurements have been conducted at the EPA Certified, Vehicle Certification Laboratory Liphardt & Associates of Long Island, New York, via the Varied Test Procedure (VTP) as per Regulation 40-CFR, Part 86, as per the official announcement reproduced in Figure 1. The tests were conducted on a Honda Civic Natural Gas Vehicle VIN number 1HGEN1649WL000160, produced in 1998 to operate with Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), purchased new in 1999 and converted to operate on Compressed MagneGas (CMG), as shown in Figure 2. The conversion from CNG to CMG was done via: 1) the replacement of CNG with CMG; 2) the disabling of the oxygen sensor (because MagneGas has about 20 times more oxygen in the exhaust than natural gas); and 3) installing a multiple spark system (to improve combustion). The rest of the vehicle was left unchanged, including its computer. The tests consisted of the conventional EPA routine for Regulation 40-CFR, Part 89, consisting of three separate and sequential tests conducted on a computerized dynamometer, the first and the third tests using the vehicle at its maximal possible capability to simulate an up-hill travel at 60 mph, while the second test consists in simulating normal city driving. Three corresponding bags with the exhaust residues are collected, jointly with a fourth bag containing atmospheric contaminants. The final measurements expressed in grams/mile are given by the average of the measurements on the three EPA test bags, less the measurements of atmospheric pollutants in the fourth bag. The following three measurements were released by Liphardt & Associates: 1) MAGNEGAS EXHAUST MEASUREMENTS WITH CATALYTIC CONVERTER (Figure 4) HYDROCARBONS: 0.026 gram/mile, which is 0.063 of the EPA standard of 0.41 gram/mile CARBON MONOXIDE 0.262 grams/mile, which is 0.077 of the EPA standard of 3.40 grams/mile NITROGEN OXIDES 0.281 gram/mile, which is 0.28 of the EPA standard of 1.00 grams/mile CARBON DIOXIDE 235 grams/mile there is no EPA standard on CO2 at this moment OXYGEN 9.5% to 10%. As one can see, MagneGas exhaust implies up to a 1/15 reduction of current EPA standards. 2) MAGNEGAS EXHAUST MEASUREMENTS WITHOUT CATALYTIC CONVERTER IN THE SAME CAR AS AND UNDER THE SAME CONDITIONS AS (1) (Figure 5) HYDROCARBONS 0.199 gram/mile, which is 0.485 of the EPA standard of 0.41 gram/mile CARBON MONOXIDE 2.750 grams/mile, which is 0.808 of the EPA standard of 3.40 grams/mile NITROGEN OXIDES 0.642 gram/mile, which is 0.64 of the EPA standard of 1.00 grams/mile CARBON DIOXIDE 266 grams/mile corresponding to about 6% there is no EPA standard on CO2 at this moment OXYGEN 9.5% to 10%. As one can see, MagneGas exhaust surpasses the EPA requirements WITHOUT the catalytic converter. As such, MagneGas can be used in existing old cars without catalytic converter and meet EPOA emission standards. 3) NATURAL GAS EXHAUST MEASUREMENTS WITHOUT CATALYTIC CONVERTER IN THE SAME CAR AND UNDER THE SAME CONDITIONS AS (1) (Figure 7) HYDROCARBONS 0.380 gram/mile, which is 0.926 of the EPA standard of 0.41 gram/mile CARBON MONOXIDE 5.494 grams/mile, which is 1.615 of the EPA standard of 3.40 grams/mile NITROGEN OXIDES 0.732 grams/mile, which is 0.73 the EPA standard of 1.00 grams/mile CARBON DIOXIDE 646.503 grams/mile, corresponding to about 8%-9% OXYGEN 0.5% to 0.7%. As one can see, natural gas exhaust without catalytic converter DOES NOT meet EPA requirements, while CO2 content is about 2.5 times that of MagneGas exhaust. As an additional comparison for the above measurements, a similar (but different) Honda car running on Indolene (a version of gasoline) was tested in the same laboratory with the same EPA procedure, resulting in the following data (Figure 7): HYDROCARBONS 0.234 grams/mile = 900% MagneGas emission CARBON MONOXIDE 1.965 grams/mile = 750% of MagneGas emission NITROGEN OXIDES 0.247 grams/mile = 86% of MagneGas emission CARBON DIOXIDE 458.655 grams/mile = 195% of MagneGas emission, The above data establish the environmental superiority of MagneGas over natural gas and gasoline. The following comments are important for an appraisal of the above results: 1) MagneGas does not contain (heavy) HC since it is created at 7,000º F. Therefore, the measured HC is expected to be due to combustion of oil, either originating from MagneGas compression pumps (thus contaminating the gas), or from engine oil. New tests are under way in which MagneGas is filtered after compression, and all oils of fossil fuels origin are replaced with synthetic oils. 2) Carbon monoxide is fuel for MagneGas (while being a combustion product for gasoline and natural gas). Therefore, any presence of CO in the exhaust is evidence of insufficient combustion. 3) The great majority of measurements (1) originate from the first and third parts of the test at extreme performance, because, during ordinary city traffic, MagneGas exhaust is cleaner, as shown in Figure 3. 4) Nitrogen oxides are not due, in general, to the fuel (whether MagneGas or other fuel), but to the temperature of the engine, thus being an indication of the quality of its cooling system. Therefore, for each given fuel, including MagneGas, NOx’s can be decreased by improving the cooling system and other means. 5) Measurements (1) do not refer to the best possible combustion of MagneGas, but only to the combustion of MagneGas in a vehicle whose carburetion was developed for natural gas. Alternatively, the test was primarily intended to prove the interchangeability of MagneGas with natural gas without any major automotive changes, while keeping essentially the same performance and consumption. The measurements under combustion specifically conceived for MagneGas are under way, and will be released in the near future. We should also indicate considerable research efforts under way to further reduce the CO2 content via suitable cartridges of disposable chemical sponges placed in the exhaust system. Additional research is under way via liquefied MagneGas obtained via catalytic or conventional liquefaction, which is expected to have an anomalous energy content with respect to other liquid fuels, and an expected, consequential decrease of pollutants. PRELIMINARY MEASUREMENTS ON MAGNEGAS CONSUMPTION Preliminary measurements of MagneGas consumption per hour in ordinary city driving were also conducted on the same Honda running on MagneGas as used for the tests reported above with the following results TANK CAPACITY: 1,096 cf at 3,500 psi TOTAL DURATION: 2.5 hours CONSUMPTION: about 6.8 cf/minute As one can see, a MagneGas pressure tank of 2,000 cf at 5,000 psi would provide a range of five hours, which is amply sufficient for all commuting and travel needs. A picture of the Honda Civic Natural Gas Vehicle converted to operate with compressed MagneGas as tested by Liphardt & Associates     An illustration of the city part of the EPA test according to Regulation 40-CFR, Part 86, conducted at the Vehicle Certification Laboratory Liphardt & Associates of Long Island, New York on a Honda Civil Natural Gas Vehicle converted to MagneGas. The first three diagrams illustrate the very low combustion emission of MagneGas in city driving, by keeping in mind that most of the measurements (6) are due to the heavy duty, hill climbing part of the EPA test. Even though 29.7% of EPA standard, the fourth diagram on nitrogen oxides is an indication of insufficient cooling of the engine. The bottom diagram indicates the simulated speed of the car versus time, where flat tracts simulate idle portions at traffic lights. By keeping in mind: 1) the lack of (heavy) hydrocarbon in MagneGas (because produced at 7,000o F of the electric arc); 2) the expectation of no appreciable carbon dioxide in the MagneGas exhaust under proper combustion (because CO is fuel for MagneGas); 3) the possible further reduction of carbon dioxide via disposable sponges placed in the exhaust systems; 4) the decrease of nitrogen oxides with a more efficient engine cooling and other improvements; and 5) the positive oxygen balance of MagneGas (not measured in the test because not included in current EPA regulations); the measurements depicted in this diagram indicate that the achievement of a truly clean fuel is indeed within technological reach.     FIGURE 4: Copy of the measurements of MagneGas exhaust with catalytic converter     FIGURE 5: Copy of the measurements of MagneGas exhaust without catalytic converter     FIGURE 6: Copy of the measurements of natural gas exhaust without catalytic converter     FIGURE 7: Copy of the measurements of gasoline (Indolene) exhaust with catalytic converter

The notion of oxygen depletion has been introduced by Dr. Santilli in his presentation reproduced below at the 2000 World Hydrogen Conference in Munich, Germany. It is defined as the permanent removal of breathable oxygen from our atmosphere and its conversion into CO₂, H₂O and other substances.

Consequently, the combustion of all fossil fuels causes oxygen depletion because they produce CO₂. Until the percentage of CO₂ in our atmosphere was small, it was recycled by plants back to breathable oxygen. Today, with the disproportionate increase of its production, the produced CO₂ cannot any longer be recycled by plants, resulting in the ongoing green house effect. It is estimated that nowadays we have in our atmosphere about one billion tons of excess CO₂ of which its O₂ content was originally breathable oxygen but it is no more. Since O₂ is about 72% of CO₂, the ongoing disproportionate fossil fuel combustion has depleted from our atmosphere about 720,000,000 metric tons of breathable oxygen.

It is evident that hydrogen combustion also causes oxygen depletion because it converts breathable oxygen into water vapor H₂O. The sole way to avoid oxygen depletion by hydrogenb combustion is to:

A) produce hydrogen from renewable energy sources that do not cause oxygen depletion;

B) use electrolytic separation of water into hydrogen and oxygen, and

C) released the produced oxygen into the air so that the hydrogen combustion leaves the oxygen balance unchanged.

In reality, hydrogen is largely produced today via electricity originating from fossil fuel electric plants that themselves cause a large oxygen depletion, and the oxygen produced is sold for other uses, thus not being available in our atmosphere at the time of hydrogen combustion, resulting in a major environmental problem.

It should be noted that the use of hydrogen as currently produced for automotive use causes an oxygen depletion bigger than that of the same car for the same performance but running on fossil fuels, because:

1) Our atmosphere is full of water vapor as shown by clouds, while the CO₂ percentage comparatively very small;

2) CO₂ continues to be at least in part recycled by plants, while the same recycling is comparatively nonexistent for H₂O; and

3) Hydrogen combustion is significantly less efficient than fossil fuel combustion,thus requiring more BTU for the same performance as that of a fossil fueled car.

It is estimated that, in the event all current cars were running on hydrogen as currently produced, the human race would be extinct due to oxygen depletion in our atmosphere.

The MagneGas Technology has been developed to alleviate the serious problem of oxygen depletion, because PlasmaArcFlow Refineries have an efficiency at least ten times that of electrolysis (since the major source of energy is the combustion of carbon by the arc, see the separate data on efficiency). Additionally, the oxygen produced by the separation of liquid waste is trapped in the magnecular clusters composing MagneGas, rather than being separated and sold as currently done for the electrolytic separation of water. Finally, MagneGas contains isolated atoms trapped in said clusters, thus have a combustion more efficient than that of fossil fuel, as established by the fact that MagneGas cuts 2" thick metal plates about twice faster than acetylene (that has 2,400 BTU/scf).

Thanks to these factors, measurements and certifications have shown that the oxygen depletion caused by MagneGas combustion is distinctly smaller than that caused by fossil fuel combustion, and it is insignificant in the event MagneGas is produced from renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, hydric, geothermal and tides.

Contributed paper to the
HYDROGEN INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE HY2000
Munich, Germany, September 11 to 15, 2000
revised version dated September 18, 2000
critical comments are solicited.

ALARMING OXYGEN DEPLETION CAUSED BY HYDROGEN
COMBUSTION AND FUEL CELLS AND THEIR
RESOLUTION BY MAGNEGAS^TM

Ruggero Maria Santilli
R&D Director
USMagnegas, Inc.
13100 Belcher Road, Largo, FL 33773, U.S.A.
Tel +1-727 507 9520, Fax +1-727-507 8261, e-address ibr@gte.net

Abstract

We recall that the use of hydrogen as fuel does resolve the environmental problems of fossil fuels due to excessive emissions of carcinogenic substances and carbon dioxide. However, the combustion of hydrogen originating from regeneration processes (e.g., from natural gas) implies the permanent removal from our atmosphere of oxygen in a directly usable form, a serious environmental problem called oxygen depletion, since the combustion turns hydrogen and oxygen into water whose separation to restore the original oxygen balance is prohibitive due to cost. We then show that a conceivable global use of hydrogen from the indicated regeneration origin in complete replacement of fossil fuels would imply the permanent removal from our atmosphere of 2.8875x10⁷ metric tons of O₂ /day, with consequential termination of all life forms in our planet in a few years. The use of hydrogen from the electrolytic separation of water via electricity originating from fossil fueled power plants has essentially the same environmental drawbacks (excessive carcinogenic emission, production of carbon dioxide, and oxygen depletion). The only environmentally acceptable hydrogen as fuel is that originating from the separation of water via clean primary energy sources, such as wind, solar energy, and other emerging clean new energies. In addition to the above environmental problems, hydrogen does not possess sufficient energy density to permit its use in a compressed form for automotive use, thus requiring its liquefaction with related notorious increase of cost and complexity for transportation, storage, delivery, and use. Fuel cells are briefly discussed to point out the existence of similarly serious environmental problems, as well as limited efficiency because of insufficient energy density of the fuel and other reasons. To resolve these problems, we propose the upgrading of hydrogen into the new combustible fuel called magnegas ^TM, which is essentially a magnetically upgraded form of hydrogen into new clusters called magnecules. This new chemical species essentially permits the achievement of an energy density sufficient for automotive use in an ordinarily compressed form. Since magnegas is produced from the recycling of liquid wastes of fossil or biomass origin, it can be synthesized in a form which is rich in oxygen from the liquid wastes themselves (rather than from the atmosphere), thus having a positive oxygen balance, that is, the oxygen produced in the exhaust is bigger than that used for the combustion. Moreover, magnegas exhust has no carcinogenic or other toxic substances, and a considerably reduced emission of carbon dioxide. We also discuss the possibility of further reducing such carbon dioxide emission via disposable, CO₂-absorbing sponges in the exhaust. We finally point out that the efficiency of the magnegas reactors is at least ten times bigger than that of current methods of hydrogen production, thus implying a significant reduction of production costs besides the reduction of costs due to the elimination of liquefaction. In view of these and other features, magnegas appears to be an excellent upgrading of hydrogen for direct combustion or use in fuel cells, either in its currently produced form, or via the extraction of its magnetically polarized hydrogen content. We finally indicate that the new magnegas technology permits the processing of crude oil in the reactors, by producing a fuel dramatically cleaner than gasoline, at a cost visibly smaller than that due to refineries. In conclusion, crude oil, hydrogen, and fuel cells remain indeed fully admissible in this new era of environmental concern, provided that they are treated via a basically new technology whose quantitative study requires a new chemistry, called hadronic chemistry.

As is well known, gasoline combustion requires atmospheric oxygen, which is then turned into CO₂ and various HydroCarbon (HC). In turn, CO₂ is recycled by plants via the known reaction
H₂O + CO₂ +(hv) -> O₂ + (-(CH₂O)-), which restores oxygen in the atmosphere. Essentially this was the scenario at the beginning of the 20th century. The same scenario at the beginning of the 20th century is dramatically different, because forests have rapidly diminished while we have reached the following unreassuring daily consumption of crude oil

74.18 million of barrel per day =                           (1)
 =  (74.18 million barrels/24h)x(55 gallons/barrel) = 4.08x10⁹ gallons/24h
= 1.54x 10¹³ cc/24h (using 4 quarts/gallon and 946 cc/quart) =
= (4.08 x 10⁹ gallons)x(4 qrt./gallon)x(946 cc/qrt.)/day  = 1.5438 x 10¹³ cc/day
= (1.5438 x 10¹³ cc/day)x(0.7028 grams/cc)= 1.0850 x 10¹³ grams octane/day
= (1.0850 x 10¹³ grams)/(114.23 grams/mole) = 9.4984 x 10¹⁰ moles n-octane/day,

(see, e.g., http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/energy.html) where we have replaced, for simplicity, crude oil with a straight chain of n-octanes CH₃-(CH₂)₆-CH₃ with the known density of 0.7028 g/cc at 20^o C. It should be indicated that data (1) do not include the additional large use of natural gas and coals, which would bring the daily combustion of all fossil fuel to the equivalent of about 120 million barrels of crude oil per day.
 The primary environmental problems caused by the above disproportionate consumption of fossil fuel per day are the following:
            1) Excessive emission of carcinogenic and other toxic substances in the combustion exhaust. It is well known by experts that gasoline combustion releases in our atmosphere the largest percentage of carcinogenic and other toxic substances as compared to any other source. The terms "atmospheric pollution" are an euphemism for very toxic breathing.
            2) Excessive release of carbon dioxide. It is evident that, under the very large daily combustion (1), plants cannot recycle the entire production of CO₂, thus resulting in an alarming increase of CO2 in our atmosphere, an occurrence known as green house effect. In fact, by using the known reaction
C₈H₁₈ + (25/2)O₂ -> 8 CO₂ + 9 H₂O, we have the following alarming daily production of CO₂ from fossil fuel combustion:

(9.4984 x 10¹⁰ moles C₈H₁₈)x(8/1)/day = 7.5987 x 10¹¹ moles CO₂/day =
= (7.5987 x 10¹¹ moles) x (0.044 Kg/mole)/day= 3.3434 x 10⁷ Kg/day =             (2)
= (3.3434 x 10¹⁰ Kg/day)/(1000 Kg/metric ton) = 3.3434x10⁷ metric tons/day

It is evident that plants cannot possibly recycle such a disproportionate amount of daily production of CO₂. This has implied a considerable increase of CO₂ in our atmosphere which can be measured by any person seriously interested in the environment via the mere purchase of a CO₂ meter, and then compare current readings of CO₂ with standard values on record, e.g., the percentage of CO₂ in our atmosphere at sea level in 1950 was 0.033 % ± 0.01 % (see, e.g., Encyclopedia Britannica of that period). Along these lines, in our laboratory in Florida we measured a thirty fold increase of CO₂ in our atmosphere over the indicated standard. We assume the reader is aware of recent TV reports of; an occurrence, which has never been observed before. Increasingly catastrophic climactic events are known to everybody.
            3) Excessive removal of directly usable oxygen from our atmosphere, an environmental problem of fossil fuel combustion, which is lesser known than the green house effect, even among environmentalists, but potentially more serious. The problem is called oxygen depletion, and refers to the difference between the oxygen needed for the combustion less that expelled in the exhaust. By using again the reaction C₈H₁₈ + (25/2)O₂ -> 8 CO₂ + 9 H₂O and data (2), it is easy to obtain the following additionally alarming daily use of oxygen for the combustion of fossil fuel

(9.4984 x 10¹⁰ moles octane/day)x(12.5 moles O₂/1 mole octane) =
= 1.1873 x 10¹² moles of O₂/day = (1.1873 x 10¹² moles of O₂)x(0.032 Kg/mole O₂)=         (3)
= 3.7994 x 10¹⁰ kg O₂/day  = 3.7994 x 10⁷ metric tons/day.

            Again, this large volume of oxygen is turned by the combustion into CO₂ of which only an unknown part is recycled by plants into usable oxygen. Thus, the actual and permanent oxygen depletion caused by fossil fuel combustion in our planet is currently unknown. However, it should be indicated that the very existence of the green house effect is unquestionable evidence of oxygen depletion, because we are dealing precisely with the quantity of CO₂ which has not been re-converted into O₂ by plants.
            Oxygen depletion is today measurable by any person seriously interested in the environment via the mere purchase of an oxygen meter, measure the local percentage of oxygen, and then compare the result to standards on record, e.g., the oxygen percentage in our atmosphere at sea level in 1950 was 20.946% ± 002% (see, e.g., Encyclopedia Britannica of that period). Along these lines, in our laboratory in Florida we measure a local oxygen depletion of 3%-5%. Evidently, bigger oxygen depletions are expected for densely populated areas, such as Manhattan, London, and Tokyo, or at high elevation. We assume the reader is aware of the recent decision by U.S. airlines to lower the altitude of their flights despite the evident increase of cost. This decision has been apparently motivated by oxygen depletion, e.g., fainting spells due to insufficient oxygen suffered by passengers during flights at previous higher altitudes.
            The purpose of this note is to indicate that, whether used for direct combustion or in fuel cells, hydrogen produced from regeneration methods (e.g., from natural gas) does avoid the release carcinogenic substances and carbon dioxide in the exhaust, but causes an alarming oxygen depletion which is considerably bigger than that caused by fossil fuel combustion under the same energy output. This depletion is due to to the fact that gasoline combustion turns atmospheric oxygen into CO₂ part of which is recycled by plants into O₂, while hydrogen combustion turns atmospheric oxygen into H₂O. This process permanently removes oxygen from our atmosphere in a directly usable form due to the excessive cost of water separation to restore the original oxygen balance.
            By assuming, for simplicity, that gasoline is solely composed of one octane  C₈H₁₈, thus ignoring other isomers, the combustion of one mole of H₂ gives 68.32 Kcal, while the combustion of one mole of octane produces 1,302.7 Kcal. Thus, we need 19.07 = 1302.7 / 68.32 moles of H₂ to produce the same energy of one mole of octane.
            In turn, the combustion of 19.07 moles of H₂ requires 9.535 moles of O₂, while the combustion of one mole of octane requires 12.5 moles of O₂. Therefore, on grounds of the same energy release, the combustion of hydrogen requires less oxygen than gasoline (about 76% of the oxygen consumed by the octane).
            The alarming oxygen depletion occurs, again, because of the fact that the combustion of hydrogen turns oxygen into water, by therefore permanently removing usable oxygen from our planet. When used in modest amounts, the combustion of hydrogen constitutes no appreciable environmental problem. However, when used in large amounts, the combustion of hydrogen produced viia regenerative methods is potentially catastrophic on environmental grounds, because oxygen is the foundation of life.
            At the limit, a global combustion of hydrogen of regenerating origin in complete replacement of fossil fuels would render our planet uninhabitable in a short period of time. In fact, such a vast use would imply the permanent removal from our atmosphere of 76% of the oxygen currently consumed to burn fossil fuels, i.e., from Eqs. (2) and (3), we would have the following permanent oxygen depletion due to global hydrogen combustion:

76% oxygen used for fossil fuel combustion =                      (4)
= 2.8875 x 10⁷ metric tons O₂ depleted/day.                           

In addition, one should take into account the quantitatively similar oxygen depnetion caused by the production of electricity, resulting in a truly catastrophic oxygen depletion which would imply the termination of any life on Earth within a few years.
             Predictably, the above feature of hydrogen combustion has alarmed environmental groups, labor unions, and other concerned people. As an illustration, calculations show that, in the event all fuels in Manhattan were replaced by hydrogen, the local oxygen depletion would cause heart failures, with evident large financial liabilities and legal implications for hydrogen suppliers.
            In addition to the above catastrophic oxygen depletion, hydrogen produced via regenerating processes has additional, equally serious environental problems of carcinogeniic and CO₂ emission pointed out by P. Spath and M. Mann of the U. S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory at the recent International Hydrogen Energy Forum 2000 [1].
            The combustion of hydrogen produced from the electrolytic separation of water via electricity originating from conventional power plants, has similar environmental problems. In fact, the original separation of the water, and its subsequent recombination in the combustion does indeed preserve the original oxygen balance. However, an oxygen depletion greater than that of Eq. (4) is caused by the combustion of fossil fuels to producve the electricity needed for the separation of water. Moreover, the combustion of fossil fuels in primary power plants implies the emission of large amounts of carcinogenic substances and carbon dioxide. As a result, the automotive use of hydrogen whose production requires electricity originating from conventional power plants is more polluting than gasoline.
            The only environmentally acceptable use of hydrogen as fuel is that produced via the separation of water whose electricity originates from clean, renewable, primary sources of energy, such as wind and solar energies, as suggested by the BMW Group for their hydrogen powered car [2]. Unfortunately, the latter sources of primary energy have insufficient production capabilities for large scale automotive use of hydrogen. This scenario implies that the primary environmental problems currently rest with primary sources of energy, thus suggesting primary research efforts in the search of new clean energy for the production of electricity.
            In addition to the above serious emvironmental problems, hydrogen has the further drawback of having an energy density which is insufficient for its use in a compressed form to power automobiles, thus requyiring its liquefaction [2]. This creates additional costs (besides those for the currently available inefficient production methods), as well as serious logistic and technological problems in the infrastructures needed for the production, transportation, delivery, and use of liquid hydrogen. Moreover, the use of hydrogen as fuel for convebntional engines implies the loss of about 35% in power as compared to gasoline use in the same engione [2].
            In summary, even when of environmentally acceptable origin, hydrogen has insufficient energy density, insufficient energy output, and excessive cost.
            An inspection of fuel cells reveals essentially the same scenario. If hydrogen from regeneration methods is used as fuel, we have the above indicated oxygen depletion. If, instead, we use more complex fuels, we are back to essentially the original problems caused by fossil fuels. Moreover, one should note that the limited energy output of fuel cells sees its ultimate origin in the insufficjent energy dernsity and output of hydriogen.
            The main open issue created by the above scenario is: since pure hydrogen produced via regeneration methods is potentially catastrophic on a large scale use whether as direct fuel or in fuel cells, and hydrogen originating from clean renewable primary sources has a rather limited production potential, how can hydrogen be upgraded to a form avoiding the oxygen depletion while improving fossil fuel emission? It is easy to see that this question does not admit an industrially and environmentally acceptable answer via the use of conventional gases. For instance, the addition of CO to H₂ in a 50-50 mixture would leave the oxygen depletion unchanged. In fact, each of the two reactions H₂ + (1/2) O₂ -> H₂ and CO + (1/2) O₂ -> CO₂ requires 1/2 mole of O₂.Therefore, the 50-50 mixture of H₂ and CO would also require 1/2 mole of O₂, exactly as it is the case for the pure H₂.

water vapor about 65%-70%; Oxygen 9.5%-10.5%; CO₂ 6%-8%              (5)
CO 0.00%-0.01%; HC minus 2 to minus 5 ppm; rest atmospheric

HYDROCARBONS:
0.026 gram/mile = 93.6% reduction of the EPA standard of 0.41 gram/mile
CARBON MONOXIDE:
0.262 gras/mile = 92.6% reduction of the EPA standard of 3.40 grams/mile
NITROGEN OXIDES:
0.281 gram/mile = 29.7% reduction over the EPA standard of 0.4 gm/mi
CARBON DIOXIDE:
235 grams/mile - there is no EPA standard on CO2 at this moment;
OXYGEN:
not measured because not requested in Regulation 40-CFR, Part 86.

which illustrates the environmental superiority of magnegas over gasoline.

Acknowledgments. The author would like to thank D. D. Shillady, of the Chemistry Department of Virginia Commonwealth University, U.S.A.,and A. K. Aringazin, of the Department of Theoretical Physics, Karaganda State University, Kazakhstan. Particular thanks are also due to all member of USMagnegas, Inc., for invaluable assistance without which this paper could not have seen the light of the day. Special thanks are finally due to various participants of the Internatioonal Hydrogen Energy Conference HY2000 for invaluable critical comments.

References